Digital Electronics

From gates to flip-flops and converters. The logic behind every computer: logic gates and Boolean algebra, K-map simplification, combinational circuits (adders, multiplexers, encoders, decoders), sequential circuits (flip-flops, counters, registers), and analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters — with Verilog examples.

• Logic Gates — Logic gates are the atoms of digital electronics. Learn binary signals and logic levels, the basic gates (NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR) with truth tables and symbols, universal gates, CMOS implementation, noise margins, fan-out, propagation delay and dynamic power.
• Boolean Algebra & K-Maps — Boolean algebra lets you simplify logic before building it. Learn the laws (identity, complement, distributive, absorption), De Morgan's theorems, SOP and POS forms, minterms and maxterms, Karnaugh maps with don't-cares, and how simplification saves gates, power and delay.
• Combinational Circuits — Combinational circuits produce outputs that depend only on current inputs. Learn the design procedure, half and full adders, ripple-carry and carry-lookahead adders, subtractors with two's complement, magnitude comparators, parity generators, and timing (critical path, glitches).
• Multiplexers & Demultiplexers — A multiplexer selects one of many inputs; a demultiplexer routes one input to one of many outputs. Learn 2:1, 4:1 and 8:1 MUX logic, select lines, building larger MUXes, implementing any function with a MUX, DEMUX and decoders, and uses in buses, data selectors and FPGAs.
• Encoders & Decoders — Decoders turn binary codes into one-hot outputs; encoders do the reverse. Learn n-to-2ⁿ decoders with enable, address decoding for memory, priority encoders, BCD-to-7-segment decoders, keypad encoding, and code converters (binary ↔ Gray, BCD).
• Latches & Flip-Flops — Sequential circuits remember. Learn the SR latch, gated D latch, edge-triggered D, JK and T flip-flops, characteristic tables and equations, setup, hold and clock-to-Q times, maximum clock frequency, metastability and synchronisers.
• Counters & Registers — Counters and registers are built from flip-flops. Learn asynchronous (ripple) and synchronous counters, up/down and modulo-N counters, frequency division, shift registers (SISO, SIPO, PISO, PIPO), ring and Johnson counters, LFSRs, and finite state machines.
• ADC & DAC — Converters bridge analog and digital worlds. Learn resolution, LSB size, quantisation error and SNR, ADC types (flash, SAR, sigma-delta, pipelined), sampling rate, reference voltage, DAC types (R-2R, string, PWM), and key specs (INL, DNL, ENOB).